impact hypnosis brain activity perception

New Research Shows How Hypnosis Modifies Brain Activity and Perception

Introduction to Hypnosis Research

Three studies form the University  of Zurich indicate that hypnosis modulates the functional connectivity of the brain's large networks and impacts the neurochemical environment in specific area.

The Scientific Enigma of Hypnosis

From a scientific standpoint, hypnosis has long remained an enigma. Until now, there has been insufficient data to determine whether it constitutes a a distinct state of human consciousness or is merely a product of imagination. Nevertheless, it continues to captivate researchers and the public alike.

Public and Scientific Interest in Hypnosis

Hypnosis continues to capture public and scientific interest, as evidenced by a recent in-depth feature in a leading women's magazine. Remarkable cases occasionally surface, including a 2018 incident at the Hirslanden Klinik St. Anna in Lucerne, where a 45-year-old patient underwent surgery to remove a metal plate from his lower arm under hypnosis alone. Without anesthesia or pain medication, the patient reported no significant pain, surprising the surgical team. This case was highlighted by the Swiss public broadcaster SRF Puls on September 17 of that year.

Clinical Application of Hypnosis

The integration of hypnosis into routine hospital care has shown promising results. Geneva University Hospitals (HUG) incorporate clinical hypnosis as a complementary approach alongside conventional treatments. To Support this initiative, HUG provides specialized training for its staff, as noted on its website. Additionally, hypnosis has been effectively employed to help alleviate anxiety in children facing upcoming medical procedures.

Impact of Hypnosis on Pain and Anxiety

Hypnosis appears to reduce pain and anxiety, making it a valuable tool in prenatal care, burn treatment and dental procedures.

Investigating the Altered Cognitive State in Hypnosis

The Neuroscientific Approach to Hypnosis

Until now, the precise effects of hypnosis on the human neurobiological system have remained elusive. Can hypnosis induce observable changes in brain activity, and if so, what do they entail? These critical questions motivated neuroscientists Philipp Stämpfli, Nuno Prates de Matos, and Mike Brügger, along with their research team, to investigate the phenomenon through three studies. Two of these studies were conducted at the Center for Magnetic Resonance Imaging at the University Hospital of Psychiatry Zurich (PUK), under Stämpfli's leadership, while the third was carried out in the Department of Psychology at the University of Zurich (UZH).

Exploring and characterizing various states of human consciousness remains one of the most significant challenges in neurobiology. Itis likely that alterations in states of consciousness manifest within the brain's functional networks. As a result, researchers hypothesized that any effects of hypnosis would be observable in these networks and could be mapped and quantified using advanced imaging techniques.

The Three Studies: Consistent Methodology

Study Design and Imaging Techniques

The neuroscientists carried out three studies with identical designs, employing distinct imaging techniques for each. This enabled them to investigate the effects of hypnosis on the human brain through a multimodal approach. The researchers assert that this was the first study to examine two distinct depths of hypnosis.

The fMRI research was published in Frontiers in Human Neuroscience, the EEG study in Cortex, and the magnetic resonance spectroscopy analysis in Scientific Reports.

Study Participants and Procedures

Each study involved the selection of just over 50 participants, all of whom were healthy, experienced in hypnosis and familiar with both hypnotic states. Once in the MR scanner, the participants were initially brought into a mild state of hypnosis (HS1, somnambulism) using a consistent, standardized induction. They were then guided into a deep, profound hypnotic state (HS2, Esdaile).

As all participants had prior experience with hypnosis, they were able to signal the study leaders from the scanner once they reached the desired depth. They maintained this state for approximately 20 minutes, which was the time required for brain imaging using one of the the three different methods.

The researchers acknowledge that the sample used in the three studies was highly selective. Therefore, they stress that the results should not be generalized. As Mike Brügger explains, "Our aim was to identify fundamental principles, specifically whether there are differences in brain activity when subjects are hypnotized to two distinct depths."

The primary objective of the three hypnosis studies was to gain a fundamental understanding of the processes occurring during hypnosis, rather than to explore its potential as a therapeutic approach.

The three studies provide evidence from various methodological approaches and verifiable data, demonstrating that scientists can differentiate between two levels of hypnosis.

Key Findings: Changes in Brain Activity and Connectivity

Evidence of Hypnosis Impacting Brain Activity

The fMRI study uncovered alterations in activity within the regions of the cerebral cortex associated with attention and body awareness. All participants reported experiencing a profound state of relaxation, which in some cases led to a loss of spatial temporal perception.

Elevated Theta Brainwaves

Theta brainwaves were elevated at both levels of hypnosis. These wave are associated with sleepiness and deep relaxation and also occur during other relaxation states such as meditation or psychedelic experiences. While they are present at various stages of the sleep cycle, they are not predominant during sleep.

In fact, while the subjects reported feeling deeply relaxed, they indicated that they were far from falling asleep. Instead, the researchers observed a high level of focus among the participants.

Physiological Changes Under Hypnosis

Under hypnosis, subjects exhibited a reduction in both breathing and heart rate, further confirming the deep relaxation associated with this state.

Analysis and Future Outlook

Challenges in Data Interpretation

While the three studies have accumulated a vast amount of scientific data, interpreting this data remains a challenging task, as acknowledged by the researchers. Nevertheless, St ämpfli and Brügger assert that the studies have already addressed two key questions.

The Impact of Hypnosis on Brain Activity

The first finding is that hypnosis does indeed alter brain activity, confirming that the hypnotic effect is neither imagined nor fabricated. The second insight is that hypnosis occurs at varying depths, a point that has been hotly debated within professional circles, with limited scientific evidence ot support it until now, according to Stämpfli.

Need for Further Research

While these recent findings mark progress, the researchers emphasize that additional studies are essential to develop a broader understanding of hypnosis. Furthermore, the underlying reasons for hypnosis' therapeutic effects on conditions like pain and anxiety warrant further investigation.

The Three Imaging Approaches

Three separate measurement methods were utilized by the researchers in the three hypnosis studies.

Electroencephalography (EEG)

Electroencephalography (EEG) was employed to monitor shifts in brainwave frequencies and spatial patterns within the electrical activity of millions of neurons.

Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI)

Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI) was used to capture alterations in inter-brain region communication and visually represent these changes.

Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy (MRS)

Leveraging fMRI results, the researchers utilized magnetic resonance spectroscopy (MRS) to explore specific brain regions at a more detailed, molecular level.

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New research from the University of Zurich reveals how hypnosis alters brain function and perception. Dive into the latest findings on consciousness and neural connectivity.

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worm surface chemistry growth survival

Worm Surface Chemistry Unlocks Clues to Their Growth and Survival

Groundbreaking Research Sheds Light on Worm's Surface Chemistry

Recent research has provided the most comprehensive analysis to date of the surface chemistry of worm species, shedding light on how these organisms engage with their surroundings and each other. This work could lay the groundwork for deeper insights into evolutionary changes, improve behavioral research and contribute to strategies for addressing parasitic infections.

The Role of Mass Spectrometry Imaging in Understanding Nematodes

Scientists from the University's School of Pharmacy utilized cutting-edge mass spectrometry imaging to study Caenorhabditis elegans and Pristionchus pacificus, aiming to elucidate their distinct surface chemical compositions and their roles in physiological and behavioral processes.

Nematode Surface Chemistry Reveals Complex Chemical Landscape

The study reveals that nematode surfaces primarily consist of oily, lipid-based compounds, creating a chemically intricate landscape. These findings have been published in the Journal of the American Chemical Society.

The Significance of Nematodes in Various Ecosystems

nematodes, commonly known as worms, inhabit diverse ecosystems worldwide, including soil, water, plants seeds, animals and even humans. In severe cases, nematode infections can result in significant health complications.

Insights into Human Biology Through Nematodes

Dr. Veeren Chauhan, Assistant Professor in Whole Organism Analytics the School of Pharmacy, led the research. He stated, "Nematodes serve as an exceptional model for human biology and are among the most comprehensively studied organisms, particularly in genetics, neurology and developmental biology."

Connecting Nematode Biology to Human Health

With humans sharing approximately 60-70% of their DNA these worms, new insights into their biology could profoundly advance our understanding of human physiology and aid in addressing global health challenges.

Cutting-Edge Technology Unlocks Nematode Chemical Properties

Leveraging state-of-the-art mass spectrometry technology, we investigated the surface chemical properties of nematodes across developmental stages, enabling us to monitor molecular changes, interspecies variations and their role in interactions.

Advancements in Mass Spectrometry: The 3D-OrbiSIMS Instrument

Utilizing the cutting-edge 3D-OrbiSIMS instrument at the University of Nottingham, the team uncovered dynamic changes in the surgace chemistry of both worm species, revealing a composition predominantly consisting of lipids (70-80%).

The Power of the 3D-OrbiSIMS Instrument for Chemical Analysis

The University of Nottingham was among the first institutions globally to acquire a 3D-OrbiSIMS instrument, facilitating cutting-edge molecular analysis of biological cells, tissues and various materials with unparalleled precision.

The Importance of Lipid Surfaces in Worm Physiology and Behavior

By integrating surface sensitivity, high mass resolution and spatial resolution with a depth-profiling sputtering beam, this instrument becomes an exceptionally powerful fool for chemical analysis, as evidenced in this study.

Lipid Layers Help Worms Survive and Interact

Dr. Chauhan explains, "identifying the lipid-dominated composition of these worm's surfaces represents a major breakthrough in comprehending their physiology. These lipid layers are essential for hydration retention and serve as a defense mechanism against bacterial invasion, which is critical for their survival."

Lipid Surfaces as Chemical Cues for Interspecies Interactions

Intriguingly, these lipids not only contribute to surface properties but also function as chemical signals that shape interspecies interactions, including predation. For instance, Pristionchus pacificus relies on direct contact with the surface lipids of Caenorhabditis elegans to initiate predatory behavior, with modifications in these lipids increasing the prey's vulnerability.

Implications for Parasitic Worm Research and Disease Prevention

This in-depth understanding of nematode surface chemistry and its role in interaction and survival paves the way for groundbreaking research, potentially informing novel strategies to combat parasitic worms and the diseases they propagate.

Collaboration with the Max Planck Institute for Neurobiology of Behavior

This study was carried out in collaboration with the Lightfoot Lab, under the leadership of Dr. James lightfoot, at the Max Planck Institute for Neurobiology of Behavior—caesar in Bonn, Germany.

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Recent breakthrough in worm surface chemistry reveal how lipid-based structures play a vital role in survival, interactions and even predation. This cutting-edge research could pave the way for new strategies to combat parasitic infections and enhance biological understanding.

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genome recoding for synthetic proteins

Scientists Recode the Genome to Create Programmable Synthetic Proteins

Breathrough in Genome Recoding

Yale synthetic biologists have successfully reprogrammed an organism's genetic code, creating a novel genomically recoded organism (GRO) with a single stop codon. Using a specially developed cellular platform, they have enabled the production of entirely new classes of synthetic proteins, which hold vast potential for advancing medical and industrial applications.

A Revolutionary Genomically Recoded Organism: 'Ochre'

What is 'Ochre'?

A groundbreaking genomically recoded organism (GRO), named 'Ochre,' has been developed by compressing redundant or 'degenerate' codons into a single codon. This achievement is detailed in a newly published study in Nature. Codons, sequences of three nucleotides in DNA or RNA, encode specific amino acids, the fundamental components of proteins.

Engineering Genetic Systems for Biotherapeutics and Biomaterials

"This study provides insights into the plasticity of genetic codes," said Farren Isaacs, professor of molecular, cellular, and developmental biology at Yale and co-senior author. "It also showcases our ability to engineer genetic systems to create multifunctional proteins, ushering in a transformative era for biotherapeutics and biomaterials."

Building on the 2013 GRO Study

This groundbreaking advancement builds upon the team's 2013 Science publication, which detailed the creations of the first genomically recoded organism (GRO). That study introduced novel strategies for enhancing the safety of genetically engineered organisms while enabling the production of synthetic proteins and biomaterials with artificial, human-designed chemistries.

Advancing Non-Redundant Genetic Code in E. coli

Ochre represents a significant advancement toward establishing a streamlined, non-redundant genetic code in E. coli, an organism well-suited for synthesizing proteins that incorporate multiple distinct synthetic amino acids.

Engineering the Genome - A New Scale of Innovation

Jesse Rinehart, associate professor at Yale School of Medicine and co-senior author, described the research as a groundbreaking demonstration of whole-genome engineering, achieving over 1,000 targeted edits-an innovation that significantly surpasses all previous genetic engineering milestones.

Unlocking Applications in Research and Industry

"This groundbreaking platform technology paves the way for a wide range of biotechnological applications across both academic research and commercial industries," said Rinehart. "Our goal is not only to expand scientific knowledge but also to drive industrial innovations that benefit society."

Understanding Codons and Their Role in Protein Engineering

What are Codons?

The codon, a three-nucleotide sequence found in DNA and RNA, functions as a genetic blueprint for protein synthesis. It instructs the cell on which of the 20 natural amino acids to integrate into a developing protein chain or, if a 'stop' codon is encountered, to cease synthesis. This process, known as translation, enables mRNA to regulate both the sequence of amino acids and the initiation and termination of protein formation.

Redefining the Genetic Code

Michael Grome, a postdoctoral associate in molecular, cellular, and developmental biology at Yale and first author of the study, compare codons to three-letter words in the genetic blueprint of life. He explained that within the cell, ribosomes function like 3D printers, interpreting this genetic code. Each codon specifies a single amino acid, selected from the 20 natural amino acids that form proteins.

Removing Redundancy to Expand Functionality

"Many of these codons are synonymous, meaning they convey the same instruction," explained Grome. "Our goal to expand the set of available building blocks for proteins. To achieve this, we consolidated three stop codons into one, effectively removing two and reprogramming the cell to repurpose them for new functions. We then engineered the cell to interpret these freed codons as instructions for incorporating novel amino acids."

AI-Guided Engineering for Synthetic Biology

The researchers strategically removed two to the three stop codons responsible for terminating protein synthesis. In the recoded genome, four codons were reassigned to novel, non-redundant roles, including the two modified stop codons, which were repurposed to encode nonstandard, or synthetic, amino acids within proteins.

Beyond implementing thousands of precise genomic edits, the study leveraged AI-driven desing and the re-engineering of key protein and RNA translation factors to develop a strain capable of incorporating two nonstandard amino acids into its genetic framework.

Expanding Functional Capabilities of Proteins

The incorporation of these nonstandard amino acids grants proteins novel functionalities, enabling the development of programmable biologics with reduced immunogenicity and biomaterials with enhanced elecrical conductivity.

A Decade-Long Collaboration in Genome Engineering

These findings represent the culmination of years of genome recoding research conducted by two laboratories at the Yale Systems Biology Institute on West Campus.

Complementary Expertise in Genome and Protein Engineering

The collaboration between Rinehart and Isaacs began in 2010 when they worked in adjacent labs. Isaacs, likening his work to architectural planning, has focused on genome engineering, while Rinehart's research centers on protein synthesis and their functional potential.

"We realized that our skill sets were complementary and that both labs contribute a diverse range of expertise and technical capabilities,' Rinehart stated.

Future Applications of Programmable Protein Biologics

Isaacs is enthusiastic about what he considers game-changing applications for programmable protein biologics enabled by this new platform.

One promising avenue involves designing protein-based therapeutics with synthetic chemistries to reduce dosing frequency and mitigate adverse immune responses.

Validating the Approach - The 2022 Study

The team previously demonstrated such an application in a 2022 study utilizing their first-generation GRO.

By incorporating non-standard amino acids into proteins, they introduced a safer and tunable approach to modulating the half-life of protein biologics.

Bringing Programmable Biologics to Market

The Ochre cell enhances these capabilities, enabling the development of multifunctional biologics. Isaacs and Rinehart currently serve as advisors to Pearl Bio, a Yale biotechnology spin-off that has secured licensing rights to commercialize programmable biologics.

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"Unlock the Future of Genetic Engineering!

Yale scientists have achieved a groundbreaking milestone in synthetic biology by recoding the genome to create programmable synthetic proteins. This revolutionary advancement paves the way for next-generation biopharmaceuticals, enhanced biomaterials, and novel protein-based therapeutics.

How will this impact medicine, biotech, and industrial applications?

Read the full story now!

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ear muscle activation focused listening

New Research Reveals Ear Muscle Activates During Focused Listening

The Role of Auricular Muscles in Hearing

Ancestral Function and Vestigial Structures

If you can move your ears, you're using muscles that helped our distant ancestors enhance their hearing. These auricular muscles would adjust the pinna's form, funneling sound waves directly to the eardrum.

Although our ancestors ceased relying on them millions of years ago, auricular muscles in humans remains as vestigial structures. However, recent research reveals that these muscles still activate when we focus on distinguishing competing sounds.

Insights from The Frontiers in Neuroscience Study

Andreas Schröer, first author of the Frontiers in Neuroscience study from Saarland University, explains that ear wiggling relies on three large muscles that connect the auricle to the skull and scalp.

These muscles, especially the superior auricular muscle, become more active during intense listening efforts, suggesting their role extends beyond reflexes to aiding attentional focus in challenging auditory conditions.

measuring Listening Effort

Electromyography and Auricular Muscle Activity

Quantifying listening effort remains difficult without self-reported measures. Yet, electromyography, which records muscle electrical activity, provides insight into auricular muscle function during attentive listening. Prior studies indicate that the posterior and superior auricular muscles—responsible for pulling the ears up and back—activate when an individual focuses on auditory stimuli. This suggests their ancestral role in pinna movement to optimize sound reception.

Hypotheses on Vestigial Function

"The exact caused of these muscles becoming vestigial remains unclear, given that our ancestors lost this function around 25 million years ago," Schröer noted. "A plausible hypothesis suggests that as human visual and vocal capabilities advanced, the selective pressure for ear mobility diminished."

Experimental Approach

Study Design and Conditions

Researchers examined whether auricular muscles exhibit heightened activity during complex listening conditions by enlisting 20 participants with no hearing impairments. Electrodes were affixed to their auricular muscles as they listened to an audiobook with distracting podcasts played from speakers positioned either in front or behind them. The experiment consisted of 12 five-minute trials, each varying in difficulty across three levels.

Adjusting Task Difficulty

In the Easiest Condition, the podcast was played at a lower volume than the audiobook with a clear distinction between the two voices. To increase difficulty researchers introduced a podcast that closely resembled the audiobook's tone and increased the volume of distracting audio. However, they ensured that even the most challenging condition remained achievable—if participants disengaged no physiological effort could be measured.

Participant Feedback and Comprehension

Following each trial, participants were asked to assess their listening effort and estimate how frequently they lost track of the audiobook. Additionally, researchers tested their comprehension through content-related questions.

Key Findings and Implications

Distinct Muscle Responses

The researchers observed that the two auricular muscles exhibited distinct responses to varying conditions. While the posterior auricular muscles were sensitive to shifts in sound direction, the superior auricular muscles showed greater activation in response to the task's level of difficulty.

Self-reported effort levels and the frequency with which participants lost track of the audiobook increased with the task's difficulty. Additionally, accuracy in answering content-related questions significantly declined as the moved from moderate to high difficulty.

Superior Auricular Muscle as a Measure of Listening Effort

This findings aligned with the activity levels of the superior auricular muscles, which did not show increased activation during the medium mode compared to the easy mode, but were notably active during the difficult mode. This indicates that superior auricular muscle activity may serve as an objective measure of listening effort, though it remains unclear whether this muscle activity aids in hearing.

Evolutionary Considerations

"The ear movements induced by the recorded signals are subtle that any potential benefits are likely imperceptible," said Schröer.

While the auricle plays a role in sound localization, the auriculomotor system likely exerts its best effort after 25 million years of vestigial development, though its effectiveness is limited.

Future Directions and Research Needs

Further Studies and Practical Applications

The researchers emphasized that additional studies are needed to validate these findings and explore their practical applications. Like many auditory studies, their sample size was limited, consisting mostly of young, healthy individuals. To draw more robust conclusions, larger and more diverse participant groups, tested under more realistic conditions, are required.

Exploring Additional Impacts on Hearing

Schrö er stated, "In the future, we aim to explore the potential impact of muscle strain and the ear's minute movements on sound transmission."

"It would also be valuable to examine how these factors affect individuals with hearing impairments."

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